Monday, August 13, 2012
AP Notes
Notes from AP World History will be posted at apwhistory.blogspot.com. Check this afternoon for notes from the summer reading assignment.
Friday, May 25, 2012
Summer / AP World History
Well, school's out, and Pre-AP can now be happily forgotten. Come next year I'll create a new blog for AP, and at that time I'll post a link to it here. But until then, I for one am enjoying my summer.
Monday, May 21, 2012
Vocab: a complete list
I know that this isn't quite complete; I've left out several of the definitions. That's because I've only started this today, and it's quite a daunting project. I'll certainly update this as I continue scouring my notes, however, if you have anything you would like to add, please email me at luxrayvillage@gmail.com. Help would be very much appreciated!
Vocab Review
South Asia
subcontinent: a large, distinguishable part of a continent
Khyber Pass: a pass through the mountains at the top of India which allowed for the passage of people and ideas, particularly the Aryans or Dravidians
Indo-Gangetic Plain: a huge fertile plain in the northern part of india
monsoon: a seasonal wind of the Indian Ocean and southern Asia, blowing from the southwest in the summer and from the northeast in winter
Harappan Civilization: early Indian civilization centered around the Indus River valley
Harappa:
Mohenjo-Daro:
decipher: to decode
Dravidians: also the Aryans, this name being derived from the language they spoke; they migrated into India bringing a portion of the Hindu religion with them, including the idea of castes
Indo-European: Europe, Southwest, and South Asia
Hittites:
Aryans: same as Dravidians
steppe: like a prairie, a large area of flat grassland (not a forest)
migrations: the movements of persons from one location to another
dasas: one who has surrendered to a god; can refer to a follower of a particular deity
Sanskrit: the language spoke by ancient Indians
raja/maharaja: the ruler of a particular group of land; a raja reported a maharaja, similar to English Duke and Marquis
varna: skin color or caste
jati: a sub-caste
caste system: a system of dividing the brahmins, kshatriyas, vaisyas, sudras, and untouchables which defined what each could do and what interactions each could have
Purusha: the person who in Vedic legend was sacrificed, his head becoming the brahmins, his hands the kshatriyas, his legs the vaisyas, and his feet the sudras
Brahmins: the highest caste, consisting of priests
Kshatriyas: the second-highest caste, consisting of warrior-kings
Vaisyas: the third-highest caste, consisting of merchants and artisans
Sudras: the lowest caste, consisting of farmers
Untouchables: the group below even the lowest caste, consisting of extremely impoverished people
Vedas: four books the Aryans brought with them, containing prayers, magical spells, and ritual instructions
Rigveda: the most important of the Vedas
Upanishads: Hindu religious texts where Hindu teachers attempted to interpret and explain the Vedic hymns, written as student/teacher dialogues and proclaiming the oneness of the individual and the universe, centering on the doctrine of Brahma, and introducing the idea of reincarnation allowing you to move up or down the caste system
Ramayana: an epic poem telling how Rama, Vishnu’s reincarnation, and his devotee Hanuman (a monkey god) recover Rama’s wife Sita from the demon king Ravana
Mahabharata: the Great Poem of the Bharatas, includes the Bhagavad-Gita and consists of 18 books and 90,000 stanzas
Bhagavad-Gita: the Song of God, part of the Mahabhrata, attempting to spread the basic messages of moksha, karma, samsara, hope for lower castes, dharma, etcetera: it summarizes these and in it Lord Krishna promises to help people who fulfill their dharma, and points the way towards moksha
brahman: the universal force that permeates everything
atman: an individual soul, a piece of the brahman
Hinduism: a polytheistic religion, believing in the caste system as well as reincarnation, with the object being moksha, or release from reincarnation
Brahma: the creator god
Vishnu: the protector god
Shiva (Siva): the destructive god
sects: a group of people with a particular religion faith (like a denomination)
reincarnation: the idea that when you die, your soul is reborn somewhere else
samsara: the cycle of rebirth
karma: everything you did (decides if you are reincarnated up or down in society)
dharma: your duty, the things you should do
moksha: release from the cycle of rebirth
guru: a spiritual teacher
Buddhism: a religion and way of life
Siddhartha Gautama: the founder of buddhism, the buddha himself
Four Noble Truths: life is suffering, the cause of suffering is desire, you can stop desire, you can stop desire through the Eightfold Path
nirvana: enlightenment, release from the cycle of rebirth
Eightfold Path: the path to nirvana: seeking right understanding, right motives, right speech, right action, right way to make money, right effort, right intellectual activity, and right contemplation
Three Baskets of Wisdom: a series of scriptures; what the Buddha said
Tripitaka:
Theraveda: type of Buddhism - sort of the original Buddhism
Mahayana: type of Buddhism - adding bodhisattvas, transfer of religious merit, nirvana as a series of heavens, the idea of the Maitreya Buddha who will return to save humanity, worship of Buddha as a god
Mahavira: founder of Jainism
Jainism: religion completely against hurting anything, to the point that they wear masks over their mouths to keep from breathing anything in and sweep the path in front of them to clear it of life: extreme nonviolence
Mauryan Empire (Dynasty): Chandragupta, Bindusara, Asoka, from Afghanistan to the Deccan plateau
Chandragupta Maurya: founder of the Mauryan empire
Pataliputra:
Asoka (Ashoka): Mauryan ruler who conquered a lot, saw a bloody battle’s aftermath, converted to Buddhism and worked to spread it
Kalinga: the battle that caused Asoka’s conversion
stupa:
Tamil:
Gupta Empire: empire begun through a lucky marriage; it's two hundred years of existence are India’s Golden Age
Chandra Gupta I (Chandragupta I): founder of the Gupta empire, originally a nobody who married into a famous family and changed his name to gain legitimacy, his son was one of India's greatest military conquerors
Kalidasa: a poet who wrote the epic poems Meghaduta and
pastoral: farming
Magadha:
political fragmentation: being made up of multiple small divisions or fragments instead of having one ruler to unify all of them
rock and pillar edicts:
Puranas: stories of legend and myth
Artha-sastra: manual of statecraft written by Kautilya
Kautilya: wrote the Artha-sastra
the Deccan plateau:
guilds:
Gandharan Art: a combination of artistic styles from Greece, Persia, and India - Buddha in a toga
Shakas: a group of people pushed to invade India by the Hunas (branch of the Xiongnu)
Kushanas (Kushans): see above
Gujarat: a modern Indian state taking its and from the Gujaras who came to India with the Hunas and settled there permanently
"golden age": the height of cultural richness
Hunas: a branch of the Hunas who invaded India and brought about the fall of the Gupta empire
Harsha-vardhana (Harsha): a Gupta guy who made the last attempt to re-unify the Gupta empire
East Asia:
arable:
Ring of Fire: a ring of volcanoes
archipelago:
Middle Kingdom: the Xiang dynasty’s name for themselves
Wade-Giles: old system of romanizing Chinese characters
pinyin: new system of romanization
postal system:
Chinese heartland: the north china plain
Manchuria:
Mongolia:
Xinjiang: Turkestan
Xizang:
loess: nutrient-rich soil blown in from deserts in the west and north
"River of Sorrow": also the yellow river and Huang He, so called because of its unpredictable and deadly floods
Three Gorges Dam:
Ban Po: site of early chinese river valley civilization
Xia Dynasty: a legendary dynasty, supposedly the first to combine cows and plows, write, fertilize the land, and such, though there is no archaeological evidence for their existence
Shang Dynasty: another dynasty that was legendary, however we found oracle bones to prove their existence
Son of Heaven:
feudalism: pledging loyalty to a lord and landlord
oracle bones: bones covered in pictographic writing used to communicate with the ancestors, who then talked to the gods. It went from god to ancestor to oracle to bone
Anyang: capital of the Shang dynasty
Zhou dynasty: introduction of the dynastic cycle, building of roads and canals, coin money, ended in warring states (war between feudal lords or warlords)
Mandate of Heaven: the idea that a ruler has the right to rule because the ancestors have given him the mandate of heaven
dynastic cycle: get mandate of heaven, rule for a long time, natural disaster happens or people riot, another person claims that they now have the mandate of heaven, rinse and repeat
Confucianism: belief in family descendants and filial piety
Confucius (Kongfuzi): founder of confucianism, tried to spread ideology while alive but failed, became popular after his death
five relationships: ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife, older brother and younger brother, friend and friend
Analects:
Mencius:
filial piety:
Laodzi: founder of Daoism
Daoism (Taoism): belief in harmony with nature
Daodejing (Tao Te Ching):
I Ching:
yin and yang: symbols of overall harmony
wuwei: actionless activity - "It does nothing, for the sake of doing it, and so there is nothing which it does not do."
Legalism: belief in harmony of a well-regulated state
Han Feizi:
Warring States Period: after the collapse of the western zhou, much politicking, invention of the cavalry, iron weapons, and the crossbow
warlords: feudal lords who warred
Luoyang: new location of Han capital after the move from Chang’an
gentry: nobles
veneration of ancestors: worshipping your ancestors, such as your father, grandfather, and so on and so forth
Qin Dynasty: extremely short dynasty with the crazy Legalist guy Shi Huangdi
(Qin) Shi Huangdi: leader of the Qin dynasty, made the terra cotta soldiers, high taxes, standardization of writing system, elaborate tomb with flowing mercury and such, division into districts and prefectures, obsessed with the number six, the color black, and water, built packed-earth great wall, forced labor system, facilitation of trade, development of money, wagon axles, and roads
Xianyang:
Han Dynasty: centralized government, commanderies, lower taxes, softer punishments, combination of legalism and confucianism, expansion through conquest and encouraged intermarriage, stratified, civil service and Confucian academy, paper, collar harness, two-bladed plow, monopolies, rise of farmers, writing down of history, lessons and admonitions for women, both Former Han and Later Han
Chang'an: original capital
civil service: required service used to make roads and such
Silk Road: a series of trade routes linking China to western asia
Xiongnu: also the Mongols, a group of Mongolians who constantly caused problems for the early Chinese
(Han) wudi: Liu Bang’a great grandson, most prolific ruler
Sima Qian: the Grand Historian
public works: projects where people were forced to work on walls and canals, mostly for the military
Liu Bang: founder of the han dynasty
Bactria: Somewhere in the middle east, supplied China with horses which were in great demand
Parthians: Iranians
Sinicization: much like assimilation, the process of absorbing other cultures into one large culture, but only applying to China
Wang Mang: guy who overthrew the han in the space between Former and Later han
Three Kingdoms and Six Dynasties Period: time after the Han dynasty
Admonitions for Women and Biographies of Heroic Women: urged women to be self-sacrificing, serving others, humble, obedient, and industrious
Europe:
Minoans:
Arthur Evans:
Knossos:
fresco: a form of art where pictures are painted on wet plaster; once the plaster dries, the fresco will last a long time
Myceneans:
Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos:
Troy:
Heinrich Schliemann:
Dorians: early Greeks
Homer: wandering bard who wrote the Illiad and the Odyssey
Illiad:
Odyssey: follows the journey of Odysseus, mostly as he returns from the Trojan war
epic:
myths:
polis: a city-state
acropolis:
agora: a vase
tyrant/tyranny: someone who takes power by force
Athens: a Greek city-state
Draco:
Cleisthenes:
Council of 500:
Sparta: a Greek city-state
Council of Elders: a council consisting of old people who were part of the Spartan bureaucracy (since Sparta was highly militaristic, old people weren't common)
Messenia:
helots: Spartan slaves
Olympics:
hoplites: greek warriors
phalanx: a military formation that is roughly shaped like a triangle, with people along the outside of the triangle bearing shields to protect their neighbor and spears to attack their enemy, and people on the inside pushing against those on the outside to force their way into enemy lines
trireme:
Persian Wars: (Greece won)
Marathon:
Thermopylae:
Salamis:
Delian League: a league formed by Athens after the Persian wars, supposedly for protection; they were originally led by a group but Athens began to take over, not permitting anyone to leave, which started the Peloponnesian wars
Pericles:
direct democracy: where the people have a direct say regarding the government (not like ours, where we elect a representative, that is a representative democracy)
Parthenon: giant temple built in Athens
classical art:
tragedy:
Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides: three playwrights who pioneered tragedy and comedy
comedy:
Aristophanes:
Herodotus:
Thucydides:
Peloponnesian League: a league formed by Sparta to counter Athens' Delian League
Peloponnesian War: a war between Athens + the Delian League and Sparta + the Peloponnesian League (Sparta won)
philosophy/philosophers:
Socrates: taught people to question themselves, developed Socratic Method of learning through questioning, was killed
Plato:wrote the Republic, about the perfect society led by a philosopher-king, with stupid people kicked out
Aristotle: philosopher who taught Alexander the Great, focused on logic
Phillip II:
Macedonia:
Thebes:
Chaeronea:
Alexander the Great:
Hellespont:
Granicus, Issus, Gaugamela:
Antigonus:
Seleucus:
Ptolemy:
Hellenistic:
Alexandria:
Euclid:
Archimedes:
Stoicism:
Epicureanism: the idea of having pleasure in your life (rich food, fine wines, beautiful/handsome people), but in moderation
Latins:
Etruscans/Etruria:
republic:
patricians:
plebians:
Twelve Tables: the first publicly visible laws for Rome
tribunes:
consuls:
senate:
dictator: a person with absolute power
gravitas: the Roman ideal
Cincinnatus:
legion:
Carthage:
Punic Wars: a series of three wars between Rome and Carthage (Rome won)
Hannibal: a Carthaginian general who really hated Rome, with such conviction that he led an army (including war elephants) through the Alps to attack Rome. He was going to beat them (he had several important victories, particularly at the battle of Cannae), but had to give it up and return home to defend Carthage against a Roman counterattack
Numidia:
Dalmatia:
Scipio:
Zama:
Tiberius and Gaius Graccus: two brothers who tried to bring about a change in the social gap between plebians and patricians
Julius Caesar:
triumvirate:
"bread and circuses": a government policy of distracting the public from the problems within
Celts:people who lived in Gaul and the area of Germany
Gaul: the region of France
Pompey:
Mark Antony:
Octavian/Augustus:
Cleopatra:
Actium:
Pax Romana: the peace of Rome
the "good" emperors:
Trajan:
Hadrian:
Marcus Aurelius:
Christianity:
judea:
Messiah:
Jesus:
New Testament:
Gospels:
apostles:
Paul (of Tarsus):
martyrs: people who have died for their religion
Constantine:
Edict of Milan:
Theodosius:
bishop:
Peter:
pope:
Nicene Creed/Council of Nicaea: refinement of Christian beliefs
sacraments:
St. Augustine:
Inflation: the rise of prices and the lowering of monetary value (examples: gas used to be 75¢, now it's $3.89; one dollar used to get you dinner, now it gets you a bag of chips)
mercenaries: warriors for hire
Diocletian:
Byzantium/Constantinople:
Germanic peoples:
Huns:
Attila:
Greco-Roman culture:
mosaics: art consisting of small pieces of glass arranged to form patterns or pictures
Pompeii: Roman city preserved when Mt. Vesuvius erupted and covered it in volcanic ash, the source of much of our knowledge of Roman daily life Virgil: a Roman poet
Aeneid:
Western Civilization:
Livy:
Tacitus:
Romance languages: languages which developed from Latin, consisting of Spanish, French, Portugese, Romanian, and Italian
aqueducts: a system of transporting water
Colosseum: in general, an arena built to house gladiatorial games; specifically a colosseum built in Rome that still stands today
Sub-Saharan Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa:
Nubia:
Kush:
Meroe:
tsetse fly: a fly carrying a deadly disease
savanna:
animism: worship of spirits
griots: similar to historians, people who passed down oral history
Nok:
Djenne-Djeno:
Bantu:
Bantu migrations:
Axum (Aksum):
Ezana:
camel: a pack animal
saddle: something people use to sit on animals
stirrup: part of a saddle where you place your feet
lateen sail: a special triangular sail that makes a ship more maneuverable and is itself easier to change
Indian Ocean Maritime System: the system of aquatic trade routes leading from the Red Sea to India and then to Southeast Asia
Parthians:
Silk Road: a series of trade routes, mostly over land, that link China to Western Asia and beyond
Latin America
pampas:
tropical wet:
tropical wet and dry:
semiarid:
steppe:
savanna:
rain shadow: the side of a mountain that does not get rain because the mountain blocks the rain clouds
tierra caliente:
tierra templada:
tierra fria:
Mesoamerica: Central or Middle America, from Mexico to Panama
maize: a crop very similar to corn
shaman:
chinampas: a technological development used to grow crops; a large mound of plants with irrigation and lined with stones that could be removed to allow drainage
Olmec(s):
La Venta:
obsidian: a volcanic rock used as a weapon instead of metal; very high trade value
Zapotec:
Monte Alban:
Teotihuacan:
Quetzalcoatl:
Pyramid of the Sun:
Avenue of the Dead:
Tikal:
Copan:
Palenque:
Maya(n):
stelae (stele):
Popul Vuh: a more recent book that gives a lot of insight into Mayan culture
Xibalba:
Long Count: the long calendar used by the Mayans that gives an account based on rulers
Uxmal:
Chichen Itza:
glyphs:
vertical trade: a type of trade where different regions of a mountain can produce different goods, and trade goes up and down the mountain
Chavin:
Chavin de Huantar:
Nazca:
Moche (Mochica):
Sipan:
khipu (quipu):
mit'a (mita):
ayllu:
llama: a pack animal that can carry thirty pounds more than a human; one person can control thirty of them
manioc:
quinoa: a protein-rich crop
Vocab Review
South Asia
subcontinent: a large, distinguishable part of a continent
Khyber Pass: a pass through the mountains at the top of India which allowed for the passage of people and ideas, particularly the Aryans or Dravidians
Indo-Gangetic Plain: a huge fertile plain in the northern part of india
monsoon: a seasonal wind of the Indian Ocean and southern Asia, blowing from the southwest in the summer and from the northeast in winter
Harappan Civilization: early Indian civilization centered around the Indus River valley
Harappa:
Mohenjo-Daro:
decipher: to decode
Dravidians: also the Aryans, this name being derived from the language they spoke; they migrated into India bringing a portion of the Hindu religion with them, including the idea of castes
Indo-European: Europe, Southwest, and South Asia
Hittites:
Aryans: same as Dravidians
steppe: like a prairie, a large area of flat grassland (not a forest)
migrations: the movements of persons from one location to another
dasas: one who has surrendered to a god; can refer to a follower of a particular deity
Sanskrit: the language spoke by ancient Indians
raja/maharaja: the ruler of a particular group of land; a raja reported a maharaja, similar to English Duke and Marquis
varna: skin color or caste
jati: a sub-caste
caste system: a system of dividing the brahmins, kshatriyas, vaisyas, sudras, and untouchables which defined what each could do and what interactions each could have
Purusha: the person who in Vedic legend was sacrificed, his head becoming the brahmins, his hands the kshatriyas, his legs the vaisyas, and his feet the sudras
Brahmins: the highest caste, consisting of priests
Kshatriyas: the second-highest caste, consisting of warrior-kings
Vaisyas: the third-highest caste, consisting of merchants and artisans
Sudras: the lowest caste, consisting of farmers
Untouchables: the group below even the lowest caste, consisting of extremely impoverished people
Vedas: four books the Aryans brought with them, containing prayers, magical spells, and ritual instructions
Rigveda: the most important of the Vedas
Upanishads: Hindu religious texts where Hindu teachers attempted to interpret and explain the Vedic hymns, written as student/teacher dialogues and proclaiming the oneness of the individual and the universe, centering on the doctrine of Brahma, and introducing the idea of reincarnation allowing you to move up or down the caste system
Ramayana: an epic poem telling how Rama, Vishnu’s reincarnation, and his devotee Hanuman (a monkey god) recover Rama’s wife Sita from the demon king Ravana
Mahabharata: the Great Poem of the Bharatas, includes the Bhagavad-Gita and consists of 18 books and 90,000 stanzas
Bhagavad-Gita: the Song of God, part of the Mahabhrata, attempting to spread the basic messages of moksha, karma, samsara, hope for lower castes, dharma, etcetera: it summarizes these and in it Lord Krishna promises to help people who fulfill their dharma, and points the way towards moksha
brahman: the universal force that permeates everything
atman: an individual soul, a piece of the brahman
Hinduism: a polytheistic religion, believing in the caste system as well as reincarnation, with the object being moksha, or release from reincarnation
Brahma: the creator god
Vishnu: the protector god
Shiva (Siva): the destructive god
sects: a group of people with a particular religion faith (like a denomination)
reincarnation: the idea that when you die, your soul is reborn somewhere else
samsara: the cycle of rebirth
karma: everything you did (decides if you are reincarnated up or down in society)
dharma: your duty, the things you should do
moksha: release from the cycle of rebirth
guru: a spiritual teacher
Buddhism: a religion and way of life
Siddhartha Gautama: the founder of buddhism, the buddha himself
Four Noble Truths: life is suffering, the cause of suffering is desire, you can stop desire, you can stop desire through the Eightfold Path
nirvana: enlightenment, release from the cycle of rebirth
Eightfold Path: the path to nirvana: seeking right understanding, right motives, right speech, right action, right way to make money, right effort, right intellectual activity, and right contemplation
Three Baskets of Wisdom: a series of scriptures; what the Buddha said
Tripitaka:
Theraveda: type of Buddhism - sort of the original Buddhism
Mahayana: type of Buddhism - adding bodhisattvas, transfer of religious merit, nirvana as a series of heavens, the idea of the Maitreya Buddha who will return to save humanity, worship of Buddha as a god
Mahavira: founder of Jainism
Jainism: religion completely against hurting anything, to the point that they wear masks over their mouths to keep from breathing anything in and sweep the path in front of them to clear it of life: extreme nonviolence
Mauryan Empire (Dynasty): Chandragupta, Bindusara, Asoka, from Afghanistan to the Deccan plateau
Chandragupta Maurya: founder of the Mauryan empire
Pataliputra:
Asoka (Ashoka): Mauryan ruler who conquered a lot, saw a bloody battle’s aftermath, converted to Buddhism and worked to spread it
Kalinga: the battle that caused Asoka’s conversion
stupa:
Tamil:
Gupta Empire: empire begun through a lucky marriage; it's two hundred years of existence are India’s Golden Age
Chandra Gupta I (Chandragupta I): founder of the Gupta empire, originally a nobody who married into a famous family and changed his name to gain legitimacy, his son was one of India's greatest military conquerors
Kalidasa: a poet who wrote the epic poems Meghaduta and
pastoral: farming
Magadha:
political fragmentation: being made up of multiple small divisions or fragments instead of having one ruler to unify all of them
rock and pillar edicts:
Puranas: stories of legend and myth
Artha-sastra: manual of statecraft written by Kautilya
Kautilya: wrote the Artha-sastra
the Deccan plateau:
guilds:
Gandharan Art: a combination of artistic styles from Greece, Persia, and India - Buddha in a toga
Shakas: a group of people pushed to invade India by the Hunas (branch of the Xiongnu)
Kushanas (Kushans): see above
Gujarat: a modern Indian state taking its and from the Gujaras who came to India with the Hunas and settled there permanently
"golden age": the height of cultural richness
Hunas: a branch of the Hunas who invaded India and brought about the fall of the Gupta empire
Harsha-vardhana (Harsha): a Gupta guy who made the last attempt to re-unify the Gupta empire
East Asia:
arable:
Ring of Fire: a ring of volcanoes
archipelago:
Middle Kingdom: the Xiang dynasty’s name for themselves
Wade-Giles: old system of romanizing Chinese characters
pinyin: new system of romanization
postal system:
Chinese heartland: the north china plain
Manchuria:
Mongolia:
Xinjiang: Turkestan
Xizang:
loess: nutrient-rich soil blown in from deserts in the west and north
"River of Sorrow": also the yellow river and Huang He, so called because of its unpredictable and deadly floods
Three Gorges Dam:
Ban Po: site of early chinese river valley civilization
Xia Dynasty: a legendary dynasty, supposedly the first to combine cows and plows, write, fertilize the land, and such, though there is no archaeological evidence for their existence
Shang Dynasty: another dynasty that was legendary, however we found oracle bones to prove their existence
Son of Heaven:
feudalism: pledging loyalty to a lord and landlord
oracle bones: bones covered in pictographic writing used to communicate with the ancestors, who then talked to the gods. It went from god to ancestor to oracle to bone
Anyang: capital of the Shang dynasty
Zhou dynasty: introduction of the dynastic cycle, building of roads and canals, coin money, ended in warring states (war between feudal lords or warlords)
Mandate of Heaven: the idea that a ruler has the right to rule because the ancestors have given him the mandate of heaven
dynastic cycle: get mandate of heaven, rule for a long time, natural disaster happens or people riot, another person claims that they now have the mandate of heaven, rinse and repeat
Confucianism: belief in family descendants and filial piety
Confucius (Kongfuzi): founder of confucianism, tried to spread ideology while alive but failed, became popular after his death
five relationships: ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife, older brother and younger brother, friend and friend
Analects:
Mencius:
filial piety:
Laodzi: founder of Daoism
Daoism (Taoism): belief in harmony with nature
Daodejing (Tao Te Ching):
I Ching:
yin and yang: symbols of overall harmony
wuwei: actionless activity - "It does nothing, for the sake of doing it, and so there is nothing which it does not do."
Legalism: belief in harmony of a well-regulated state
Han Feizi:
Warring States Period: after the collapse of the western zhou, much politicking, invention of the cavalry, iron weapons, and the crossbow
warlords: feudal lords who warred
Luoyang: new location of Han capital after the move from Chang’an
gentry: nobles
veneration of ancestors: worshipping your ancestors, such as your father, grandfather, and so on and so forth
Qin Dynasty: extremely short dynasty with the crazy Legalist guy Shi Huangdi
(Qin) Shi Huangdi: leader of the Qin dynasty, made the terra cotta soldiers, high taxes, standardization of writing system, elaborate tomb with flowing mercury and such, division into districts and prefectures, obsessed with the number six, the color black, and water, built packed-earth great wall, forced labor system, facilitation of trade, development of money, wagon axles, and roads
Xianyang:
Han Dynasty: centralized government, commanderies, lower taxes, softer punishments, combination of legalism and confucianism, expansion through conquest and encouraged intermarriage, stratified, civil service and Confucian academy, paper, collar harness, two-bladed plow, monopolies, rise of farmers, writing down of history, lessons and admonitions for women, both Former Han and Later Han
Chang'an: original capital
civil service: required service used to make roads and such
Silk Road: a series of trade routes linking China to western asia
Xiongnu: also the Mongols, a group of Mongolians who constantly caused problems for the early Chinese
(Han) wudi: Liu Bang’a great grandson, most prolific ruler
Sima Qian: the Grand Historian
public works: projects where people were forced to work on walls and canals, mostly for the military
Liu Bang: founder of the han dynasty
Bactria: Somewhere in the middle east, supplied China with horses which were in great demand
Parthians: Iranians
Sinicization: much like assimilation, the process of absorbing other cultures into one large culture, but only applying to China
Wang Mang: guy who overthrew the han in the space between Former and Later han
Three Kingdoms and Six Dynasties Period: time after the Han dynasty
Admonitions for Women and Biographies of Heroic Women: urged women to be self-sacrificing, serving others, humble, obedient, and industrious
Europe:
Minoans:
Arthur Evans:
Knossos:
fresco: a form of art where pictures are painted on wet plaster; once the plaster dries, the fresco will last a long time
Myceneans:
Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos:
Troy:
Heinrich Schliemann:
Dorians: early Greeks
Homer: wandering bard who wrote the Illiad and the Odyssey
Illiad:
Odyssey: follows the journey of Odysseus, mostly as he returns from the Trojan war
epic:
myths:
polis: a city-state
acropolis:
agora: a vase
tyrant/tyranny: someone who takes power by force
Athens: a Greek city-state
Draco:
Cleisthenes:
Council of 500:
Sparta: a Greek city-state
Council of Elders: a council consisting of old people who were part of the Spartan bureaucracy (since Sparta was highly militaristic, old people weren't common)
Messenia:
helots: Spartan slaves
Olympics:
hoplites: greek warriors
phalanx: a military formation that is roughly shaped like a triangle, with people along the outside of the triangle bearing shields to protect their neighbor and spears to attack their enemy, and people on the inside pushing against those on the outside to force their way into enemy lines
trireme:
Persian Wars: (Greece won)
Marathon:
Thermopylae:
Salamis:
Delian League: a league formed by Athens after the Persian wars, supposedly for protection; they were originally led by a group but Athens began to take over, not permitting anyone to leave, which started the Peloponnesian wars
Pericles:
direct democracy: where the people have a direct say regarding the government (not like ours, where we elect a representative, that is a representative democracy)
Parthenon: giant temple built in Athens
classical art:
tragedy:
Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides: three playwrights who pioneered tragedy and comedy
comedy:
Aristophanes:
Herodotus:
Thucydides:
Peloponnesian League: a league formed by Sparta to counter Athens' Delian League
Peloponnesian War: a war between Athens + the Delian League and Sparta + the Peloponnesian League (Sparta won)
philosophy/philosophers:
Socrates: taught people to question themselves, developed Socratic Method of learning through questioning, was killed
Plato:wrote the Republic, about the perfect society led by a philosopher-king, with stupid people kicked out
Aristotle: philosopher who taught Alexander the Great, focused on logic
Phillip II:
Macedonia:
Thebes:
Chaeronea:
Alexander the Great:
Hellespont:
Granicus, Issus, Gaugamela:
Antigonus:
Seleucus:
Ptolemy:
Hellenistic:
Alexandria:
Euclid:
Archimedes:
Stoicism:
Epicureanism: the idea of having pleasure in your life (rich food, fine wines, beautiful/handsome people), but in moderation
Latins:
Etruscans/Etruria:
republic:
patricians:
plebians:
Twelve Tables: the first publicly visible laws for Rome
tribunes:
consuls:
senate:
dictator: a person with absolute power
gravitas: the Roman ideal
Cincinnatus:
legion:
Carthage:
Punic Wars: a series of three wars between Rome and Carthage (Rome won)
Hannibal: a Carthaginian general who really hated Rome, with such conviction that he led an army (including war elephants) through the Alps to attack Rome. He was going to beat them (he had several important victories, particularly at the battle of Cannae), but had to give it up and return home to defend Carthage against a Roman counterattack
Numidia:
Dalmatia:
Scipio:
Zama:
Tiberius and Gaius Graccus: two brothers who tried to bring about a change in the social gap between plebians and patricians
Julius Caesar:
triumvirate:
"bread and circuses": a government policy of distracting the public from the problems within
Celts:people who lived in Gaul and the area of Germany
Gaul: the region of France
Pompey:
Mark Antony:
Octavian/Augustus:
Cleopatra:
Actium:
Pax Romana: the peace of Rome
the "good" emperors:
Trajan:
Hadrian:
Marcus Aurelius:
Christianity:
judea:
Messiah:
Jesus:
New Testament:
Gospels:
apostles:
Paul (of Tarsus):
martyrs: people who have died for their religion
Constantine:
Edict of Milan:
Theodosius:
bishop:
Peter:
pope:
Nicene Creed/Council of Nicaea: refinement of Christian beliefs
sacraments:
St. Augustine:
Inflation: the rise of prices and the lowering of monetary value (examples: gas used to be 75¢, now it's $3.89; one dollar used to get you dinner, now it gets you a bag of chips)
mercenaries: warriors for hire
Diocletian:
Byzantium/Constantinople:
Germanic peoples:
Huns:
Attila:
Greco-Roman culture:
mosaics: art consisting of small pieces of glass arranged to form patterns or pictures
Pompeii: Roman city preserved when Mt. Vesuvius erupted and covered it in volcanic ash, the source of much of our knowledge of Roman daily life Virgil: a Roman poet
Aeneid:
Western Civilization:
Livy:
Tacitus:
Romance languages: languages which developed from Latin, consisting of Spanish, French, Portugese, Romanian, and Italian
aqueducts: a system of transporting water
Colosseum: in general, an arena built to house gladiatorial games; specifically a colosseum built in Rome that still stands today
Sub-Saharan Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa:
Nubia:
Kush:
Meroe:
tsetse fly: a fly carrying a deadly disease
savanna:
animism: worship of spirits
griots: similar to historians, people who passed down oral history
Nok:
Djenne-Djeno:
Bantu:
Bantu migrations:
Axum (Aksum):
Ezana:
camel: a pack animal
saddle: something people use to sit on animals
stirrup: part of a saddle where you place your feet
lateen sail: a special triangular sail that makes a ship more maneuverable and is itself easier to change
Indian Ocean Maritime System: the system of aquatic trade routes leading from the Red Sea to India and then to Southeast Asia
Parthians:
Silk Road: a series of trade routes, mostly over land, that link China to Western Asia and beyond
Latin America
pampas:
tropical wet:
tropical wet and dry:
semiarid:
steppe:
savanna:
rain shadow: the side of a mountain that does not get rain because the mountain blocks the rain clouds
tierra caliente:
tierra templada:
tierra fria:
Mesoamerica: Central or Middle America, from Mexico to Panama
maize: a crop very similar to corn
shaman:
chinampas: a technological development used to grow crops; a large mound of plants with irrigation and lined with stones that could be removed to allow drainage
Olmec(s):
La Venta:
obsidian: a volcanic rock used as a weapon instead of metal; very high trade value
Zapotec:
Monte Alban:
Teotihuacan:
Quetzalcoatl:
Pyramid of the Sun:
Avenue of the Dead:
Tikal:
Copan:
Palenque:
Maya(n):
stelae (stele):
Popul Vuh: a more recent book that gives a lot of insight into Mayan culture
Xibalba:
Long Count: the long calendar used by the Mayans that gives an account based on rulers
Uxmal:
Chichen Itza:
glyphs:
vertical trade: a type of trade where different regions of a mountain can produce different goods, and trade goes up and down the mountain
Chavin:
Chavin de Huantar:
Nazca:
Moche (Mochica):
Sipan:
khipu (quipu):
mit'a (mita):
ayllu:
llama: a pack animal that can carry thirty pounds more than a human; one person can control thirty of them
manioc:
quinoa: a protein-rich crop
Thursday, May 17, 2012
Essay: things to write about (Maya/Greece)
Maya/Greece
Political:
city-states - same
religion/government relationship - divine/not religious
military - every man when not farming season, obsidian/chose to volunteer, buy own equipment, metal
Religious:
afterlife - underworld with hades, Cerberus, guy taking you there in a boat/Xibalba with farting gods, arrive there in a sinking canoe
gods - both polytheistic
rituals - sacrifice of food and money/people
Political:
city-states - same
religion/government relationship - divine/not religious
military - every man when not farming season, obsidian/chose to volunteer, buy own equipment, metal
Religious:
afterlife - underworld with hades, Cerberus, guy taking you there in a boat/Xibalba with farting gods, arrive there in a sinking canoe
gods - both polytheistic
rituals - sacrifice of food and money/people
Tuesday, May 15, 2012
Islam (from reading)
Muhammad (according to Muslim belief)
- he was orphaned at 6 years old
- at 25 he became a trader/business manager for Khadijah, a wealthy business women about 40 years old
- The two married
- He was interested in religion and often spent time alone in prayer and meditation
- at 40 a voice called to him while he meditated in a cave. This was the angel Gabriel, and he told Muhammad he was a messenger of Allah
- Muhammad believed this and began to teach of the one god, telling people to abandon other gods
- Islam means submission to the will of Allah, and Muslim means one who has submitted
- Muhammad's wife and several close friends/relatives were his first followers
- After his followers were attacked, Muhammad left Mecca (622)
- He sent a small group of supporters ahead of him as he went to Yathrib (now Medina)
- This became known as the Hijrah
- During this he attracted many devoted followers
- He made an agreement that joined his people with the Arabs and Jews of Medina as a single community - they accepted him as a political leader
- as a religious leader he got a lot of converts
- he also became a military leader in the hostilities between Mecca and Medina
- In 630, Muhammad and 10k of his followers marched to Mecca, whose leaders surrendered. Muhammad entered the city and destroyed the idols in the Ka'aba, making a call to prayer from its roof
- Most Meccans pledged their loyalty to him, and many converted to Islam
- Umma: Muslim religious community
- He died two years later at the age of 62
- The Dome of the Rock: the earliest surviving Islamic monument, located in Jerusalem, completed in 691. It's part of a larger complex which is the third most holy place in Islam. It's actually on tom of Mount Moriah, where there was a Jewish temple (the Romans destroyed it in 70). There's a rock there on the spot where Muhammad ascended to heaven (he came back). Jewish people say that the rock is also where Abraham almost sacrificed his son Issac.
Belief and Practices
- One God: Allah
- There is good and evil, and each individual is responsible for the actions of their own life
- Five Pillars: these are five duties that all Muslims must do
- he was orphaned at 6 years old
- at 25 he became a trader/business manager for Khadijah, a wealthy business women about 40 years old
- The two married
- He was interested in religion and often spent time alone in prayer and meditation
- at 40 a voice called to him while he meditated in a cave. This was the angel Gabriel, and he told Muhammad he was a messenger of Allah
- Muhammad believed this and began to teach of the one god, telling people to abandon other gods
- Islam means submission to the will of Allah, and Muslim means one who has submitted
- Muhammad's wife and several close friends/relatives were his first followers
- After his followers were attacked, Muhammad left Mecca (622)
- He sent a small group of supporters ahead of him as he went to Yathrib (now Medina)
- This became known as the Hijrah
- During this he attracted many devoted followers
- He made an agreement that joined his people with the Arabs and Jews of Medina as a single community - they accepted him as a political leader
- as a religious leader he got a lot of converts
- he also became a military leader in the hostilities between Mecca and Medina
- In 630, Muhammad and 10k of his followers marched to Mecca, whose leaders surrendered. Muhammad entered the city and destroyed the idols in the Ka'aba, making a call to prayer from its roof
- Most Meccans pledged their loyalty to him, and many converted to Islam
- Umma: Muslim religious community
- He died two years later at the age of 62
- The Dome of the Rock: the earliest surviving Islamic monument, located in Jerusalem, completed in 691. It's part of a larger complex which is the third most holy place in Islam. It's actually on tom of Mount Moriah, where there was a Jewish temple (the Romans destroyed it in 70). There's a rock there on the spot where Muhammad ascended to heaven (he came back). Jewish people say that the rock is also where Abraham almost sacrificed his son Issac.
Belief and Practices
- One God: Allah
- There is good and evil, and each individual is responsible for the actions of their own life
- Five Pillars: these are five duties that all Muslims must do
- Faith: you have to testify this: "There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah".
- Prayer: five times a day you must face towards Mecca and pray, either with an assembly at a mosque, or wherever you find yourself
- Alms: You have a responsibility to support the less fortunate, such as by giving alms (money for the poor)
- Fasting: During the holy month of Ramadan, you must fast between dawn and sunset. A simple meal is eaten at the end of the day. This is a reminder that your spiritual needs are greater than your physical needs.
- Pilgrimage: All Muslims must perform the hajj at least once if they are physically and financially able.
- Also, you are forbidden to eat pork or drink anything that makes you drunk
- Everybody goes and worships together on Friday afternoons
- There are no priests or central authorities, because you're supposed to worship Allah directly
- There is a scholar class called the ulama, which includes religious teacher who apply words and deeds of Muhammad to everyday life
- the original source of authority is Allah. But his angel Gabriel's revelations to Muhammad are recorded in the Islamic holy book, the Qur'an.
- The Qur'an is written in Arabic, and only Arabic is the true version of Allah, and only it can be used in worship
- Muhammad's mission as a prophet was to receive the Qur'an and demonstrate how to apply it to life
- Sunna: Muhammad's example, the best model for proper living for Muslims
- Shari'a: A body of law drawn from the Qur'an and Sunna, regulating family life, moral conduct, and business and community life of Muslims
- Allah is the same God of Jews and Christians, but Jesus was just a prophet
- the Qur'an is the word of Allah revealed to Muhammad, similar to Jews and the Torah to Moses, and Christians and the Gospels to the people who wrote them
- The Qur'an perfects earlier revisions, and it is the final book, like Muhammad, who was the final prophet
- There is heaven and hell and a day of judgement
- Muslims came from Abraham, like Jews and Christians
- Christians and Jews are "people of the book" because each of the religions have holy books with teachings similar to the Qur'an
- Shari'a law requires Muslim leaders to extend religious tolerance to people of the book
A Bit from Spread of Islam
- caliph: successor or deputy
- jihad: literally, striving; can mean inner struggle against evil, or an armed struggle against unbelievers
A Bit from Internal Conflict
- split between Shi'a and Sunni (and a small bit of Sufi)
- Sufi reject luxurious life and pursue a life of poverty and devotion to a spiritual path
- Sunni believe that the first four caliphs were "rightly guided", believe that Muslim leaders should follow the Sunna, and claim that the Shi'a have distorted the meaning of various passages in the Qur'an
- Shi'a believe that Ali, the Prophet's son-in-law, should have succeeded Muhammad, that all Muslim rulers should be descended from Muhammad (therefore they do not recognize the authority of the Sunni), and claim that the Sunni have distorted the meaning of various passages in the Qur'an
In-Class (video) 5/14
Notes from the Video (National Geographic: Inside Mecca)
- there are five pillars of Islam; one of them is the Hajj, which you must go if you are physically and financially capable
- at mecca, muslims circle the book and such
- the one god is worshipped, the god of abraham
- there is a particular season for the hajj
- the ka'aba is not worshipped, but what it represents is worshipped. it may have been built first by adam and later rebuilt by abraham after the flood
- the black stone may have fallen from heaven and been used by abraham
- Hajj rituals are very complex
- you must make Hajj in a group
- we're starting to get into stuff that Muslims say here
- Abraham instituted the pilgrimage and his story lies at the core
- for a while it became an idol worship place and people went to mecca for trade and then went to go look at the idols, but then a descendant of Abraham who lived in mecca threw out the idols: Muhammed, who saw himself as the restorer of Abraham's time
- new cover for the ka'aba was hand-sewn
- Hajj is a series of rituals performed at the end of the month
- pilgrims rest at a tent city
- pilgrims travel to the plains
- pilgrims take three days for a ritual stoning
- then they circle the ka-aba, which is the top priority
- the time for the hajj differs every year
- most pilgrims think it's essential to visit Medina, where Muhammed is buried
- men must wear two pieces of cloth similar to a funeral shroud
- circle the ka'aba seven times counterclockwise
- then Muslims speed-walk between two hilltops seven times, following the heroic desperation of Hagar, searching for water for her and her son Ishmael
- in the past, people came to mecca carrying goods to sell
- about 80% of Muslims today are non-Arabs
- once you're in a state of iram (something like that) you can't groom yourself and you can't argue
- then you go to the desert. woot?
- five miles east is the tent-city
- then you go to the plain of arafat
- arafat is where adam and eve met up again after being banished from the garden of eden, and the journey is a rehearsal for the day of judgement
- the mount of mercy is where Muhammed gave his last speech
- then you return to the tents and have a symbolic fight with the devil
- there are five pillars of Islam; one of them is the Hajj, which you must go if you are physically and financially capable
- at mecca, muslims circle the book and such
- the one god is worshipped, the god of abraham
- there is a particular season for the hajj
- the ka'aba is not worshipped, but what it represents is worshipped. it may have been built first by adam and later rebuilt by abraham after the flood
- the black stone may have fallen from heaven and been used by abraham
- Hajj rituals are very complex
- you must make Hajj in a group
- we're starting to get into stuff that Muslims say here
- Abraham instituted the pilgrimage and his story lies at the core
- for a while it became an idol worship place and people went to mecca for trade and then went to go look at the idols, but then a descendant of Abraham who lived in mecca threw out the idols: Muhammed, who saw himself as the restorer of Abraham's time
- new cover for the ka'aba was hand-sewn
- Hajj is a series of rituals performed at the end of the month
- pilgrims rest at a tent city
- pilgrims travel to the plains
- pilgrims take three days for a ritual stoning
- then they circle the ka-aba, which is the top priority
- the time for the hajj differs every year
- most pilgrims think it's essential to visit Medina, where Muhammed is buried
- men must wear two pieces of cloth similar to a funeral shroud
- circle the ka'aba seven times counterclockwise
- then Muslims speed-walk between two hilltops seven times, following the heroic desperation of Hagar, searching for water for her and her son Ishmael
- in the past, people came to mecca carrying goods to sell
- about 80% of Muslims today are non-Arabs
- once you're in a state of iram (something like that) you can't groom yourself and you can't argue
- then you go to the desert. woot?
- five miles east is the tent-city
- then you go to the plain of arafat
- arafat is where adam and eve met up again after being banished from the garden of eden, and the journey is a rehearsal for the day of judgement
- the mount of mercy is where Muhammed gave his last speech
- then you return to the tents and have a symbolic fight with the devil
Thursday, May 10, 2012
Notes from May 7th, 8th, and 9th
Maya
- not anthropomorphic gods
- one god is more like a cluster of gods - they can take on many characteristics
- other offerings (instead of blood) included flowers, food, and incense
- Popul Vah was like the Illiad or the Oddessy
- had amulets for good luck, prosperity, fertility, etc. you could put them in your home or have a small one around your neck
- corn, beans, squash! also, avocados, tomatoes, caoco
- South American geography is very important
- mountains in the middle of rainforest and desert
- the different elevations allowed for a variety of crops to be grown
- mountains were terraced and agricultural products were grown and then traded
- every thousand feet that you go up, the climate changes, so you have a whole new range of crops
- vertical trade: trading up and down the mountain
- desert provided fish and mollusks because it was close enough to the sea; that's the reason that the desert was so important
- tierra calienta: at the bottom there was tropical and coastal agriculture such as fruits, coca, fish, maize, cotton, and manioc
- tierra templada: the most populated zone, where you can grow quinoa and potatoes
- tierra fria: up to the treeline, you can grow hardy crops and a wide variety of potatoes
- tierra helada: tundra is excellent for grazing animals (llama and alpaca), and trees cannot grow there because of a layer of permafrost is constantly under the ground
- tierra nevada: ice from the top of the mountain was taken down and used for religious rituals
- manioc is a root
- quinoa is a grain that is high in protein, similar to couscous, with a nutty flavor
- the first metallurgy in the Americas: gold and gold alloy as well as copper
- first domestication of a pack animal: llamas
- terraced farming, irrigation, drainage, engineering
- buildings placed to form u-shaped figures
- people may have made pilgrimages to Chavin
- not anthropomorphic
- military may have worked in trade
- reciprocal labor: you have a clan and the clan is expected to give a certain amount of labor, and the distribution of such is not important. While some people are working on building a building, some of the others are taking care of those people's family. Then it switches. Sort of like, I owe you one. The clan takes care of everybody - the people who are going to work, their family, the people who want their labor, everything is great.
- fall: increase of war undermined government and disrupted trade
- king/priests, chiefs, artisans, peasants
- earthquakes and volcanoes
- thin air (mountains)
- peanuts, 200 types of potatoes
- straightened rivers, built canals, and terraced all the way up mountains
- humans evolved to have larger lungs and shorter, stronger legs
- the desert is at least now the driest on earth
- the sun as a creator
- Amazonian tribes caused problems
- mummification
- ancestral veneration
- elite of the p-something smooshed heads of babies into strange shapes
- these same people also drilled holes in skulls, and most people survived this...
- nazca worshipped sun, moon, and stars
- moche
- warrior-priests
- hallucinating potions
- buried surrounded by your friends in life, including your pets
- used gold, silver, and lapis lazuli
- ended through earthquakes and drought
- not anthropomorphic gods
- one god is more like a cluster of gods - they can take on many characteristics
- other offerings (instead of blood) included flowers, food, and incense
- Popul Vah was like the Illiad or the Oddessy
- had amulets for good luck, prosperity, fertility, etc. you could put them in your home or have a small one around your neck
- corn, beans, squash! also, avocados, tomatoes, caoco
- South American geography is very important
- mountains in the middle of rainforest and desert
- the different elevations allowed for a variety of crops to be grown
- mountains were terraced and agricultural products were grown and then traded
- every thousand feet that you go up, the climate changes, so you have a whole new range of crops
- vertical trade: trading up and down the mountain
- desert provided fish and mollusks because it was close enough to the sea; that's the reason that the desert was so important
- tierra calienta: at the bottom there was tropical and coastal agriculture such as fruits, coca, fish, maize, cotton, and manioc
- tierra templada: the most populated zone, where you can grow quinoa and potatoes
- tierra fria: up to the treeline, you can grow hardy crops and a wide variety of potatoes
- tierra helada: tundra is excellent for grazing animals (llama and alpaca), and trees cannot grow there because of a layer of permafrost is constantly under the ground
- tierra nevada: ice from the top of the mountain was taken down and used for religious rituals
- manioc is a root
- quinoa is a grain that is high in protein, similar to couscous, with a nutty flavor
- the first metallurgy in the Americas: gold and gold alloy as well as copper
- first domestication of a pack animal: llamas
- terraced farming, irrigation, drainage, engineering
- buildings placed to form u-shaped figures
- people may have made pilgrimages to Chavin
- not anthropomorphic
- military may have worked in trade
- reciprocal labor: you have a clan and the clan is expected to give a certain amount of labor, and the distribution of such is not important. While some people are working on building a building, some of the others are taking care of those people's family. Then it switches. Sort of like, I owe you one. The clan takes care of everybody - the people who are going to work, their family, the people who want their labor, everything is great.
- fall: increase of war undermined government and disrupted trade
- king/priests, chiefs, artisans, peasants
- earthquakes and volcanoes
- thin air (mountains)
- peanuts, 200 types of potatoes
- straightened rivers, built canals, and terraced all the way up mountains
- humans evolved to have larger lungs and shorter, stronger legs
- the desert is at least now the driest on earth
- the sun as a creator
- Amazonian tribes caused problems
- mummification
- ancestral veneration
- elite of the p-something smooshed heads of babies into strange shapes
- these same people also drilled holes in skulls, and most people survived this...
- nazca worshipped sun, moon, and stars
- moche
- warrior-priests
- hallucinating potions
- buried surrounded by your friends in life, including your pets
- used gold, silver, and lapis lazuli
- ended through earthquakes and drought
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